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READING PASSAGE 3
Petrol power: an eco-revolution?
Laura Ingalls Wilders semi-autobiographical novel The
Long Winter describes how the inhabitants of a small town called De Smet in
the american mid-west narrowly avoided starvation during the severe winter of
1880-1881. Over three metres of snow fell on the northern plains, immobilising
the railways and cutting off the settlers from the rest of the world. Laura and
her neighbours were only saved when her fiance and his friend trudged 30
kilometres through the snow to fetch food, risking their lives in the process.
The story is a reminder of how lethal geographical isolation and crop failures
could be before the advent of modern farming and transportation technologies.
Not long ago, subsistence farmers in many countries had to cope with the ‘lean
season’ – the period of greatest scarcity before the new crops became available.
In England, late spring was once referred to as the ‘hungry gap.’ The situation
was made worse by the cost of moving heavy things over muddy dirt roads. Three
centuries ago, moving goods 50 kilometres on land between, say, Liverpool and
Manchester was as expensive as shipping them across the North Atlantic.
The development of coal-powered railways and steamships in
the 19th century revolutionized the lives of farmers. Instead of having to grow
everything they needed, they could now specialise in what they did best and
rely on other producers for their remaining needs. The result was not only
starvation, as the ever-cheaper prices, but the end of widespread famine and
food and largely displaced coal because harvests could now be transported to
those that had experienced mediocre ones. Since then petroleum-derived fuels
have largely from regions with good harvests could now be transported to those
that have experienced mediocre ones. Since then petroleum-derived fuels have
largely displaced coal because of their higher energy density, cleaner
combustion and greater ease of extraction, further improving road and rail
transportation systems.
While the convenience of modern methods of transportation is
obvious, few people grasp their historical significance. In 1898, delegates
gathered in New York City for the world’s first international urban-planning
conference. The topic that dominated discussions was not infrastructure or
housing, but horse manure. The problem was that as the populations of cities
like New York and London grew, the number of horses there also grew, and in New
York these produced nearly two million kilograms of manure each day. If this
problem continued it was estimated that by 1950 every street in London would be
buried three metres deep in horse manure. Unable to think of any solution, the
delegates concluded that urban living was inherently unsustainable.
Paradoxically, The shift to deliver perishable goods, such
as meat and dairy products, from locations that benefited from better soil and
climate, put many farms located near cities out of business. As this was greatly
reduced. As this was greatly reduced and the city workhouses for fertiliser,
the demand felt both in the cities and in the countryside. In urban workhouses
was felt both in the cities and in the countryside. breeding grounds for house
flies, perhaps three billion flies were hatched each day in US cities in the
early 20th century. With manure piles in heavy traffic and cholera and
dysenteria. The clatter of wagon wheels on cobbled pavement could be deafening,
and since a horse and wagon occupied more street space than a modern truck,
they also created an traffic congestion while a horse that collapsed on the
road significant obstruction that was difficult to remove. The countryside also
suffered. To supply the workhouses with oats and hay, additional land had to be
cleared of its natural animal and vegetation, and sometimes water had to be
diverted to irrigate it, with considerable negative effects on the whole area.
So, while the trains, cars and trucks of the early 20th
century were noisy and polluting by today’s standards, they were available,
poor soils often meant that a large amount of land was required to sustain
households, and much environmental damage, primarily in the form of soil
erosion, was caused by trying to farm these soils. It could be argued that
modern transportation allowed the development of remote regions like the
Canadian prairies and allowed more suitable crops to be grown in the poorer
soils in Europe before being sold elsewhere.
Over time, the concentration of food production in the
world’s best locations allowed some agricultural land to revert to a wild
state. For instance, France benefited from an expansion of its forest area by
one third between 1830 and 1960. This so-called ‘forest transition’ occurred in
the context of a doubling of the French population and a dramatic increase in
standards of living. Improvements in logistics also allowed the production and
export of food from locations where water was abundant to regions where it was
scarce, thus preventing the depletion of water resources there. It also made
possible a drastic increase in the size of our cities. Contrary to what most
people believe, the growth in cities is a positive development. In the words of
economist Ed Glaeser: “Residing in a forest might seem to be good way of
showing one’s love of nature, but living in a concrete jungle is actually far
more ecologically friendly.” If you love nature, stay away from it. It could be
argued that modern transportation technologies have been a major contributor to
a wealthier, cleaner and more sustainable world.
Questions 27 - 30
Choose the correct letter, A, B, C or D.
Write the correct letter in boxes 27-30 on your answer
sheet.
27 Why were the inhabitants of De Smet in danger of starvation?
A. The trains were unable to operate normally.
B. The harvest had been completely destroyed.
C. Their access to food was limited for certain times.
D. The roads to the town had not yet been built.
28 What problem did subsistence farmers have in the past?
A. They had no effective means of storing food.
B. Food was expensive because of high shipping costs.
C. Their access to food was limited for certain times.
D. Food could not be transported for long distances by road.
29 The writer says that the use of coal to power railways
and steamships
A. led to a greater range of fresh vegetables being
available in urban areas.
B. was less efficient than the use of petroleum-derived
products.
C. allowed farmers to be more self-sufficient than they were
previously.
D. was better for the environment than using
petroleum-derived products.
30 The writer refers to an urban planning conference held in
1898 in order to
A. illustrate a problem that was later solved by modern
technology.
B. give an example of poor decisions made about urban
planning.
C. show that urban issues were misunderstood in the past.
D. indicate the disregard at the time for public health
concerns.
Questions 31 - 35
Complete the summary using the list of words, A-J, below.
Write the correct letter, A-J, in boxes 31-35 on your
answer sheet.
Problems caused by urban workhorses
In cities, the large amounts of horse manure led to certain
31. ……… in the streets and was also linked to the spread of 32. ……… . In
certain situations, the horses might even cause 33. ……… to passers-by. There
were also the problems of noise and congestion caused by horse-drawn vehicles.
In the countryside, there were problems too. The 34. ……… was damaged because of
the need to provide 35. ……… for urban workhorses.
|
A rich
landowners B injuries C food D accidental
falls F dangerous area G use of irrigation E environment H unpleasant smells I treatment J diseases |
Questions 36 - 40
Do the following statements agree with the views of the
writer in Reading Passage 3? In boxes 36-40 on your answer sheet, write
YES if the statement agrees with the claims of the writer
NO if the statement contradicts the claims of the writer
NOT GIVEN if it is impossible to say what the writer thinks
about this
36 Farmers whose land was poor failed to benefit from modern forms of
transport.
37 Between 1830 and 1960 there were positive effects
associated with changing patterns of agriculture in France.
38 A fairer distribution of the world’s water resources is
needed.
39 Living in the countryside does less harm to the
environment than living in a city.
40 It is possible that modern developments in transportation
have had an effect which is
27. A
28. C
29. B
30. A
31. H
32. J
33. B
34. E
35. G
36. NO
37. YES
38. NOT GIVEN
39. NO
40. YES
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